Title : Task of
Introduction To Linguistics “ Semantic”
Page : 15 pages
Publish in academia.edu
The topic is branches ofsemantics
Branches of Semantic
Semantics is the study
of meaning in language. As a branch of linguistics, semantics interconnected
with other linguistics scope like syntax, phonology even morphology. This relation
has shown by Wallace L. Chafe in 1970, whom proposed a theory called Generative
Semantics Grammar, entitled meaning and structure of language semantics as part
of a grammar, what these units mean, what they are used to talk about.
Semantic Structure or Name-Sense Relation Words form
certain kinds of relations. These are called sense relations that are paradigmatic
and syntagmatic.Below we discuss five such major
sense-relationships.
1. Hyponymy
2. Synonymy
3. Antonymy
4. Polysemy
5. Homonymy
Hyponymy
This refers to the way language classifies its words on the
principle of inclusiveness, forming a class members of which are then called co-hyponyms.
For example, the classical Greek has a ‘super ordinate’ term to cover
professions of various kinds, shoemaker, helmsman, flute player, carpenter,
etc. but such a term doesn’t exist in English. In English the word ‘animal’ is
used to include all living in contrast to the vegetable world. Hyponymous
sets can also be seen in such combinations denoting male-female-baby in dog bitch-puppy;
ram-ewe-lamb; when such terms do not exist, they are formed: female
giraffe, male giraffe, baby giraffe. Thus the meaning of male giraffe is
included in the meaning of giraffe as is the meaning of baby giraffe and
female giraffe. The relationship of inclusiveness rests on the concept
of reference. This gives us the idea of how
a language classifies words. Words that are members of a class are called hyponyms.
Synonymy refers to similarity or
‘sameness of meaning’. This is a handy concept for the dictionary makers, who
need words for one word which have greater degree of similarity. To an extent
this is acceptable, it is a working concept. However, one cannot disagree with
Dr. Johnson’s statement that ‘words are seldom exactly synonymous’. In actual
use where contextual nuances and situational subtleties influence meanings the degree
of similarity among words reduces considerably to signify much, each word acts
as a potential token of sense. Form the great literary scholars to the
semanticists all agree that it is almost a truism that total synonymy is an
extremely tale occurrence’. It is clear that in considering synonymy ‘emotive
or cognitive import’ has critical role. In the words of Ullmann, to qualify as
synonyms they must be capable of replacing’ ‘cach other in any given context
without the slightest change either in cognitive or emotive import’. John Lyon
also stresses equivalence of cognitive and emotive sense. Except for highly
technical and scientific items, words used in everyday language have strongly
emotional or associative significance. Libertyfreedom; Jude-conceal;
attempteffort, cut-slash; round-circular; have different evocative or
emotive values; in a particular context where freedom is used liberty definitely
cannot be used : it is always freedom struggle and not liberty
struggle; or freedom movement not liberty movement. Clear in
this instance freedom acts as modifier while liberty does not.
Antonymy
The concept of antonymy implies ‘oppositeness of meaning’ where
the ‘recognition and assertion of one implies the denial of the other’. This is
illustrated in pairs of words such as, big-small; old-young; wide-narrow,
etc. These words can be handled in terms of the degree of quality involved.
The comparative forms of the adjectives are graded : widewider; happy-happier;
old-older. They are also made by adding more. To use Sapir’s term,
these are explicitly graded.
Polysemy
When a word is identified as possessing two or more meanings, it
is; said to be polysemous or polysemic. These different meanings
are derived from one basic idea or concept. Dictionaries enter different
meanings of a word. Head, for example, has the following different
meanings : the upper or anterior division of the body, scat of intellect, mind,
poise, the obverse of a coin, person, individual, the source of a stream, leader,
director, crisis, culminating point of action, etc (Webster’s Dictionary). All
these meanings derive from the same word. From this have been coined as many as
seventy, compound structures, each in the right of a different word such as headsman,
headstand, headshop, headpiece, headgear, headlamp, headline, headlong,
head-dress etc. In the latter examples, one can see that the noun acts as
adjectives which show contextual shifts of application. Problems arise when it
becomes difficult to determine whether a word with several meanings must he
called polysemic or homonomous.
Homonymy
Homonomous words are defined as sounding alike hut possessing
different meanings. For example, the words lie-lie, by-bye, I-eye. They
are spoken and sometimes, written alike, but mean totally different things, as
can be seen in their uses in these sentences - Don’t lie, tell the truth. I
have to lie down now. Normally, in dictionaries, separate entries are made
for homonymous words recognising them as separate Words rather than different
meanings of the same words. Homophonous words may be spelled and written
identically or in different ways. The example cited above elucidates the point.
For the words that are spelled alike the name homography is used. For the
words that sound alike but may be spelled differently, the
term homophony is used. Examples of the former are grave-grave;
pupil-pupil; lightlight;
examples of the latter are cite-site; write-right-rite-might.
Some homophones are also, interestingly, antonyms - raise-raze; cleave
in the sense of severing asunder and cleave in the sense of ‘uniting’.
The problem of identifying which is a homonym and which a polyseme is
a practical one and often it is difficult to determine exactly what is what.
However, it is useful to know that homonymous words have generally different origins,
while polysemic words, even when their meanings arc markedly divergent, have one
source. We may use such metaphorical expressions as the foot of a bed,
or the mountain; the hands and face of a clock, but we know that
these are the meanings that ultimately trace to the original meanings of these
words. They are, therefore, polysemes. Tracing the lexical etymologies
is fraught with difficulties. One must have a vast knowledge of the histories
of the words. Confusion between polysemy and homonymy is natural.
Mention numbering in pages 11 be found
straight and weakness. This article easy to understand, but this article uses
to many meaning. For example : Hyponymous sets can also be seen in
such combinations denoting male-female-baby in dog-bitch-puppy; ram-ewe-lamb;
when such terms do not exist, they are formed: female giraffe, male
giraffe, baby giraffe. Thus the meaning of male giraffe is included in
the meaning of giraffe as is the meaning of baby giraffe and female
giraffe.
In
conclusion, i got after read this article. Linguistics has 2 part, consist pure
linguistic and applied linguistic. Pure linguistic has semantics as one of
study about linguistics. And semantic has braches as Hyponymy, Synonymy, Antonymy, Polysemy, Homonymy.
